Chapter 2, Section 4: Gender-Specific for Young Women

Young women need information and skills that address their specific concerns and needs, and opportunities to participate in effective programs in order to avoid unintended pregnancy. Indeed, gender expectations and roles are a strong force in American culture, and boys and girls often receive very different messages about sexuality, sex, and pregnancy. There are many unique antecedents that put females at risk of early intercourse or teen pregnancy (Kirby, 2001). Girls may experience peer or partner pressure to engage in sexual activity including intercourse. According to the Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation (2000), 40 percent of teen girls say they have experienced personal pressure about sex and relationships. Also, girls are much more likely than boys to identify pressure from a partner or the need to be loved as reasons for having sexual intercourse. A survey by the Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation (1998) showed that 36 percent of teens felt pressure to do something sexual or had actually done something sexual that they were not ready to do. More often, girls had these experiences. Adherence to gender roles or scripts that do not empower teen girls to make decisions or assert their personal sexual limits puts girls at greater risk of succumbing to such pressure (Rickert et al., 2002).

Girls need to know that they have options in life and that they can realize their potential. Gender-specific programming can work to boost the confidence, self-esteem, and skills of girls as they reach adolescence–a time of great risk for plummeting self-esteem (Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention [OJJDP], 1998). A study of young adolescents from seventh to ninth grades found that girls with high self-esteem were more likely to delay intercourse than girls with low self-esteem, although it found the exact opposite effect for boys (Spencer, Zimet, Aalsma, & Orr, 2002). This points to gender role differentials that can be used in developing gender-specific programs for both girls and boys. Girls need positive reinforcement and strong female role models (OJJDP, 1998).

In a study examining patterns of sexual assertiveness in young women ages 14 to 26, almost 20 percent of women “believed that they never have the right to make their own decisions about contraception, regardless of their partner’s wishes; to tell their partner that they do not want to have intercourse without birth control, that they want to make love differently or that their partner is being too rough; and to stop foreplay at any time including at the point of intercourse” (Rickert et al., 2002). In the same study, younger women were less likely to feel they have the right to ask a partner about history of STI testing than older women were.

A number of variables have been linked to risk of adolescent pregnancy in girls. While it may be impossible to address every one of them in a single program, there are many approaches that can help to empower girls, can give them hope and viable options for their futures and help them to actively avoid behaviors that put them at greater risk of early and/or unintended pregnancies.
Research Demonstrates The following are important factors to consider for successful female-only programs:

• Create a safe environment where girls can express themselves openly. The Valentine Foundation and Women’s Way (1990) clarified essential elements for successful gender-specific programming for girls. They emphasize the importance of a physical space that is removed from the distraction of male attention; time for girls to talk in an emotionally safe environment where they can build ongoing, nurturing relationships with others; and opportunities for building trust with other girls and women who care about their growth.
• Build healthy connections between young women and their families and communities (National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, 1999, 2003). Best practices for girls’ programming focus on building a healthy community around young women. Young women need positive female role models and mentors, and people who believe in them. Youth are less likely to engage in unprotected sex if they have strong attachment to their schools, parents (especially their mothers), or faith communities (Kirby, 2001). It is beneficial for programs to help foster these connections.
• Help young women see many options for their future (National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, 1999, 2003). Helping young women to set future goals has been identified as a motivating factor in postponing adolescent pregnancy. Young women need options, support, and assistance for setting future goals. Academic achievement is associated with avoidance of behaviors that put girls at risk for unintended pregnancy (Rickert et al., 2002). Academic tutoring or assessment is a beneficial component of any program, along with other job- preparation skills, money management, and other skills that teach girls how to be self-sufficient and self-reliant.
• Work with the daughters and younger sisters of girls who experienced a teen pregnancy. It has been well documented that a younger sibling will follow in her older sister’s footsteps and have a teen pregnancy of her own. The California Adolescent Sibling Pregnancy Prevention Program (ASPPP) was successful in delaying onset of intercourse and lowering the chances of pregnancy for younger sisters of teen mothers by providing a unique combination of services including training in self-esteem enhancement, decision-making skills, individual case management, academic guidance, job placement, and contraceptive and sexuality education (East, Kiernan & Chavez, 2003). Additionally, daughters of mothers who were teen parents are also at risk (National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, 1999). It is necessary to address the potential risk of these daughters and younger sisters through interventions that specifically address their needs.
• Work with teen couples to help them maintain responsible behaviors and communicate well (National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, 1999). Few programs work with couples as units, even though this approach is likely to have a positive effect because it puts the burden to prevent pregnancy on both partners and allows for both partners to hear the same information. Programs should work with young couples around communication skills and encourage them to make decisions about contraception use if they are becoming sexually active.
• Encourage girls to participate in sports. A longitudinal study found a direct relationship between athletic participation and reduced frequency of sexual behavior among girls (Sabo, Miller, Farrell, Melnick, & Barnes, 1999). The same study also found an indirect relationship to reduced risk of pregnancy for girls who play sports. A report from The Women’s Sports Foundation (1998) found that female athletes are less than half as likely to get pregnant as teens than female non- athletes, were more likely to be virgins, had first intercourse later in adolescence, had sex less often and with fewer partners, and were more likely to use contraception when they did have sex. Additionally, the link between sports participation for girls and a higher than average self-esteem is widely documented, helping girls to take pride in their bodies and to feel a greater sense of confidence and pride. There is ample evidence to support athletic programs that aim to reduce the incidence of teen pregnancy and other risk behaviors in girls.
• Address sexual assault and/or abuse in a proactive way. Because girls are three times more likely than boys are to experience sexual abuse, sexual assault is a gender issue that requires critical attention. Young females with a history of sexual assault are more likely to have early onset of sexual intercourse and to report not having used birth control at last sexual encounter (Stock, Bell, Boyer, & Connell, 1997). One study showed that 74 percent of girls who had intercourse before age fourteen reported having intercourse involuntarily (AGI, 1994). History of physical or sexual assault has also been linked to beliefs in girls about sexual rights including feeling like they don’t have the right to make sexual decisions or to refuse sexual intercourse with a familiar partner (Rickert et al., 2002). Girls need to know that their bodies belong to them and that they have agency over how they choose to explore their sexuality (OJJDP, 1998).
• Discourage teen girls from relationships with older men (National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, 1999, 2003). Teenage girls who are partnering with men who are older are a serious concern among youth service providers. In such relationships, there are power differentials that put teen girls at particular risk and need to be addressed in sensitive ways. For instance, young adolescents with significantly older male partners are less likely to use contraception than those whose partners are teens (National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, 1999). Their ability to set sexual limits may be compromised and special programs to provide skills and awareness are critical.
• Tailor programs for young women who are lesbian, bisexual, or questioning their sexual identity. Girls who are lesbian, bisexual, or questioning (LBQ) their sexual identities may be disenfranchised and need specific support and help in developing a positive self-image. One study found that bisexual and lesbian youth had a pregnancy rate that was twice that of their heterosexual counterparts (Saewyc, Bearinger, Blum, & Resnick, 1999). Additionally, lesbian and bisexual young women were much more likely to have multiple pregnancies and worse pregnancy outcomes, and to have engaged in prostitution. Programming that ignores the reproductive health needs of LBQ youth can fail to recognize the risk of unintended pregnancy among this population.
• Address substance use proactively. Teens who engage in one type of risky behavior are more likely to engage in other risky behaviors. Youth who start drinking or experimenting with drugs at an early age are also likely to have early sexual experiences (Kandel, 1990). One study of 14 to 21 year olds who had unplanned pregnancies found that one third of the girls had been drinking when they had sex and that for 91 percent, the sexual encounter was unplanned (Flanigan, Mclean, Hall, & Propp, 1990). The National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columbia University (1999) reports that nearly one quarter (23 percent) of sexually active teens and young adults ages 15 to 24 report having unprotected sex because of the use of alcohol or drugs at the time. Additionally, 29 percent said they “did more than they had planned” due to alcohol or other substance use. Males are more likely than females to report using alcohol or drugs at their last sexual encounter (CDC, 1999).

Implementation Tips

• Get teen girls to help create a safe and nurturing physical space that reflects what is important to them.
• Take time often to talk about how decisions affect relationships.
• Ask girls, “How would you respond in this situation and still keep the relationship intact?”
• Sponsor a mother-daughter event. Dinners or luncheons with brief workshops work well to increase participation from busy parents.
• Start a “Sisters” campaign, encouraging each participant to share his or her
  experience with a female friend or family member. Invite that “sister” to an event.
• Be very careful with the messages you use about teen mothers. Some of your
  participants could very well be the children and/or sisters of teen mothers and you do not want to characterize them poorly.
• Include teen mothers as much as possible into “everyday” programming rather than making them exceptions or illustrations of “what might happen.”

Gender Specific Programs for Young Women Program Assessment .pdf

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